Blockbusting: As early as 1900, real estate agents and developers encouraged affluent white property owners to sell their homes and businesses at a loss by stoking fears that their neighborhoods were being overtaken by racial or ethnic minorities. Common characteristics of this period include wide thoroughfares, spacious parks, and civic monuments that stressed progress, freedom, and national unity. Beau Arts: This movement within city planning and urban design that stressed the marriage of older, classical forms with newer, industrial ones. Action space: The geographical area that contains the space an individual interacts with on a daily basis. The impoverished and rapidly expanding megacities of the developing world provide a stark contrast to these prosperous world centers. A few such places have managed to establish themselves as world centers of economic, cultural, or administrative power. Many of today’s cities still retain much of their historical architecture and layout, but they also represent dynamic products of constantly changing social and cultural forces. 
Since then, a variety of architectural movements and transportation innovations have profoundly shaped the urban environment. During the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution fundamentally changed both the way that cities were built and their basic economic and cultural functions. By the beginning of the Colonial Period, large, prosperous cities existed on every continent except Australia. The first cities arose thousands of years ago in regions where agriculture had gained an early foothold.
Urban geographers study all aspects of the world’s cities, from their historical development, to their spatial organization, to the ways that they interact with the regions surrounding them, to their importance in the world economic system.
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